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@snakeandwolf7

(Image caption: In the top row, neurons are labeled with a fluorescent probe that reveals electrical activity. In the bottom row, neurons are labeled with a variant of the probe that accumulates specifically in the neuron cell bodies, preventing interference from axons of neighboring neurons)

Using a fluorescent probe that lights up when brain cells are electrically active, MIT and Boston University researchers have shown that they can image the activity of many neurons at once, in the brains of mice.

This technique, which can be performed using a simple light microscope, could allow neuroscientists to visualize the activity of circuits within the brain and link them to specific behaviors, says Edward Boyden, the Y. Eva Tan Professor in Neurotechnology and a professor of biological engineering and of brain and cognitive sciences at MIT.

“If you want to study a behavior, or a disease, you need to image the activity of populations of neurons because they work together in a network,” says Boyden, who is also a member of MIT’s McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Media Lab, and Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research.

Using this voltage-sensing molecule, the researchers showed that they could record electrical activity from many more neurons than has been possible with any existing, fully genetically encoded, fluorescent voltage probe.

Boyden and Xue Han, an associate professor of biomedical engineering at Boston University, are the senior authors of the study. The lead authors of the paper are MIT postdoc Kiryl Piatkevich, BU graduate student Seth Bensussen, and BU research scientist Hua-an Tseng.

Seeing connections

Neurons compute using rapid electrical impulses, which underlie our thoughts, behavior, and perception of the world. Traditional methods for measuring this electrical activity require inserting an electrode into the brain, a process that is labor-intensive and usually allows researchers to record from only one neuron at a time. Multielectrode arrays allow the monitoring of electrical activity from many neurons at once, but they don’t sample densely enough to get all the neurons within a given volume. Calcium imaging does allow such dense sampling, but it measures calcium, an indirect and slow measure of neural electrical activity.

In 2018, Boyden’s team developed an alternative way to monitor electrical activity by labeling neurons with a fluorescent probe. Using a technique known as directed protein evolution, his group engineered a molecule called Archon1 that can be genetically inserted into neurons, where it becomes embedded in the cell membrane. When a neuron’s electrical activity increases, the molecule becomes brighter, and this fluorescence can be seen with a standard light microscope.

In the 2018 paper, Boyden and his colleagues showed that they could use the molecule to image electrical activity in the brains of transparent worms and zebrafish embryos, and also in mouse brain slices. In the new study, they wanted to try to use it in living, awake mice as they engaged in a specific behavior.

To do that, the researchers had to modify the probe so that it would go to a subregion of the neuron membrane. They found that when the molecule inserts itself throughout the entire cell membrane, the resulting images are blurry because the axons and dendrites that extend from neurons also fluoresce. To overcome that, the researchers attached a small peptide that guides the probe specifically to membranes of the cell bodies of neurons. They called this modified protein SomArchon.

“With SomArchon, you can see each cell as a distinct sphere,” Boyden says. “Rather than having one cell’s light blurring all its neighbors, each cell can speak by itself loudly and clearly, uncontaminated by its neighbors.”

The researchers used this probe to image activity in a part of the brain called the striatum, which is involved in planning movement, as mice ran on a ball. They were able to monitor activity in several neurons simultaneously and correlate each one’s activity with the mice’s movement. Some neurons’ activity went up when the mice were running, some went down, and others showed no significant change.

“Over the years, my lab has tried many different versions of voltage sensors, and none of them have worked in living mammalian brains until this one,” Han says.

Using this fluorescent probe, the researchers were able to obtain measurements similar to those recorded by an electrical probe, which can pick up activity on a very rapid timescale. This makes the measurements more informative than existing techniques such as imaging calcium, which neuroscientists often use as a proxy for electrical activity.

“We want to record electrical activity on a millisecond timescale,” Han says. “The timescale and activity patterns that we get from calcium imaging are very different. We really don’t know exactly how these calcium changes are related to electrical dynamics.”

With the new voltage sensor, it is also possible to measure very small fluctuations in activity that occur even when a neuron is not firing a spike. This could help neuroscientists study how small fluctuations impact a neuron’s overall behavior, which has previously been very difficult in living brains, Han says.

The study “introduces a new and powerful genetic tool” for imaging voltage in the brains of awake mice, says Adam Cohen, a professor of chemistry, chemical biology, and physics at Harvard University.

“Previously, researchers had to impale neurons with fine glass capillaries to make electrical recordings, and it was only possible to record from one or two cells at a time. The Boyden team recorded from about 10 cells at a time. That’s a lot of cells,” says Cohen, who was not involved in the research. “These tools open new possibilities to study the statistical structure of neural activity. But a mouse brain contains about 75 million neurons, so we still have a long way to go.”

Mapping circuits

The researchers also showed that this imaging technique can be combined with optogenetics — a technique developed by the Boyden lab and collaborators that allows researchers to turn neurons on and off with light by engineering them to express light-sensitive proteins. In this case, the researchers activated certain neurons with light and then measured the resulting electrical activity in these neurons.

This imaging technology could also be combined with expansion microscopy, a technique that Boyden’s lab developed to expand brain tissue before imaging it, make it easier to see the anatomical connections between neurons in high resolution.

“One of my dream experiments is to image all the activity in a brain, and then use expansion microscopy to find the wiring between those neurons,” Boyden says. “Then can we predict how neural computations emerge from the wiring.”

Such wiring diagrams could allow researchers to pinpoint circuit abnormalities that underlie brain disorders, and may also help researchers to design artificial intelligence that more closely mimics the human brain, Boyden says.

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#WAKEUP

WAYS TO SUPPORT/BE AN ALLY

Here is a compilation of places to donate (IF you can, simply reblogging and sharing this can help) and petition to sign. I found these websites and organizations on twitter.

DONATIONS

PETITIONS

  • Willie Simmons has spent 38 years in prison for a $9 robbery. He had two prior convictions similar to robbery that he served time for. He was prosecuted under the Alabama Habitual Offender law and was given a life sentence for his third strike - stealing 9 (NINE) dollars. Sign his petition. 
  • Breonna Taylor was killed by police who were conducting an UNANNOUNCED drug raid, where they gave no request to enter. They bashed her door and entered, shooting her EIGHT times. They were in the WRONG HOUSE. 
  • George Floyd was killed by a police officer who knelt on his neck and suffocated him to death, after George pleaded with the officer and told him he couldn’t breathe. The officer had pulled him from where he sat in his car on an alleged FORGERY. You can also text “FLOYD” to 55156
  • ARREST THE OFFICERS WHO KILLED GEORGE FLOYD: The main police officer who murdered George is being kept in PROTECTIVE CUSTODY. You probably have heard he was arrested, but this is NOT TRUE. He was placed under PROTECTIVE custody because of the riots and “threats” on his life. 

If you know of ANY other organizations or petitions, PLEASE ADD TO THIS LIST. The fight for justice doesn’t end here, it will never end. Especially when the president of the United States calls white supremacists good people and protesters of a mans death THUGS. USE YOUR VOICE. NO JUSTICE, NO PEACE. FUCK COPS. FUCK “BLUE LIVES”. ALL BLACK LIVES MATTER!

the minnesota freedom fund is asking folks to donate to other organizations instead. the specific ones they listed are black visions, linked above, and these two:

  • northstar health collective, organized healthcare professionals working with anti-authoritarian groups
  • reclaim the block, a collective that aims to redistribute funding away from police and towards more community-oriented projects in minneapolis

these are the links i send to my facebook friends who keep running their mouths about “the protests hurting the community”

  • minnehaha food shelfcalvary church food shelf are both centered in the south minneapolis area where the riots started. the grocery stores in the area have been decimated, so food shelves and food insecurity charities need a lot of love right now.
  • northside funders group is a philanthropic group in the twin cities that’s using all its funds right now for helping local businesses
  • migizi is a native american media/history nonprofit whose office was destroyed in the riots
  • we love lake street is devoting funds specifically towards rebuilding the lake street area in south minneapolis

some more groups that could use your help

  • the healing justice foundation is a national nonprofit that’s specifically focusing on mental health resources for bipoc right now
  • ctul is a nonprofit focused on low-wage workers and workers rights in minnesota
  • mpd 150 is focused on policing and specifically trying to reroute the conversation from “we need to change police procedures” to “the police need structural reform”
  • the spiral collective is providing funds for supplies, medic kits, and other things that protesters will need on the ground
  • unicorn riot is a media collective that has had people on the ground filming every night in minneapolis

last but not least some more bail funds

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SOMEONE FINALLY SAID IT

So if a teenager is at school for roughly 8 hours, and they are doing homework for 6+ hours, and they need AT LEAST 9 HOURS OF SLEEP FOR THEIR DEVELOPING BRAINS, then they may have 0-1 hours for other activities like eating, bathing, exercise, socializing (which is actually incredibly important for emotional, mental, and physical health, as well as the development of skills vital to their future career and having healthy romantic relationships among other things), religious activities, hobbies, extra curriculars, medical care of any kind, chores (also a skill/habit development thing and required by many parents), relaxation, and family time?  Not to mention that your parents may or may not pressure you to get a job, or you might need to get one for economic reasons.

I will never not reblog this

“…but teenagers have no reason to be stressed.”

Me in high school trying to explain stress to my mother 🤯

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Discuss this @ Psych2go

I’m sorry, but love just isn’t that simple.

I had a classmate in college that seemed a little odd. None of us really spoke to him unless we had to work on projects together, and he seemed like a reserved person for the most part.

Sometimes he was late to laugh at a joke, but otherwise we didn’t think he was so different.

Then came the end of semester project where we all had to discuss our detailed plans for the future in front of the class; what sort of careers we dreamed of having, the reason we were at college in the first place.

And when his turn came it changed my life.

He gave us the short and sweet version of his life story. How he was born with something wrong with his amygdala, (If I remember correctly) and because of it he could not feel emotions. He couldn’t process them, only fake them to blend in. He was keenly intelligent, brilliant. With his brain undistracted by emotions, not quite able to relate to the feeling of boredom, he was a very dedicated student in every subject he had time for between meals and sleep.

But his driving force that caused him to aim his entire life at becoming a neuroscientist was the fact that as far back as he could remember, his mother always said “I love you,” to him with a forlorn expression. A look he had realized later in his teens was due to her knowledge that he could never love her back. That every time he said he loved her, he didn’t actually feel it.

So he wanted to cure his condition. Hence his goal to study the human brain.

The single most powerful force in his entire life was a goal to one day tell his mother he loved her, and for her to smile with genuine joy believing it to be true.

I don’t care what anyone says.

The only force that would guide a young man’s life, to be completely centered around bringing his mother a joy she never thought she could have… is love.

It is more than just a chemical in the brain.

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Dormant Predators

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This is why I have this. Even if they can get the lock opened they can’t push the door open. Got it at Lowes for $20.

reblog for that last bit to save a life

If you’re like me and have a large gap under your front door (someone could take a stick and just poke the leaning stick style door jam out), I recommend the Addalock. It’s small, perfect for traveling, and this lock is CRAZY. It’s so simple but the door does not move.

You can’t see it from the other side, either. It also cost about $20, and I can’t recommend it enough. Easy to travel with, too! Great for Air BnBs!

That’s why I have these on my doors. They get drilled into the side and once its flipped over the door nothing is getting it open. Not the door being unlocked nothing, I’ve unlocked the door and pulled and pushed as hard as I could and it didn’t budge. When I go on a trip this is what I use and when I’m home I leave it on too. No one is getting in here.

Okay I know that it is necessary for many but what do you do if you need medical attention and you’re not able to open the door from the inside? Can the fire department get through these at least?  

Yes. The fire department can and will break down your door if necessary, it’s one of the reasons they have axes; it’s entirely possible for door frames to melt/expand/seize or otherwise become unopenable during a house fire but the door itself can be hacked down. Or the window. In rare cases, the wall. Firefighters don’t fuck around with collateral damage when lives are at stake.

Sharing for all the safety items!!

‘Broken heart’ syndrome may originate in the brain

Scientists have shown for the first time that the brain is involved in the development of a heart condition called Takotsubo syndrome (TTS). They found that regions of the brain responsible for processing emotions and controlling the unconscious workings of the body, such as heart beat, breathing and digestion, do not communicate with each other as well in TTS patients as in healthy people.

The study was published in the European Heart Journal and the researchers say that although, at this stage, they cannot show that the reduced brain functions definitely cause TTS, their findings suggest that these alterations in the central nervous system may be part of the mechanism involved and they are linked with the onset of TTS in response to stressful or emotional triggers.

TTS is known as “broken heart” syndrome and is characterised by a sudden temporary weakening of the heart muscles that causes the left ventricle of the heart to balloon out at the bottom while the neck remains narrow, creating a shape resembling a Japanese octopus trap, from which it gets its name. Since this relatively rare condition was first described in 1990, evidence has suggested that it is typically triggered by episodes of severe emotional distress, such as grief, anger or fear, or reactions to happy or joyful events. Patients develop chest pains and breathlessness, and it can lead to heart attacks and death. TTS is more common in women with only 10% of cases occurring in men.

In an unusual example of collaboration between neuroscientists and cardiologists, researchers carried out MRI brain scans in 15 TTS patients taken from the InterTAK Registry, established at the University Hospital Zurich, Switzerland, in 2011. They compared the scans with those from 39 healthy people. The scans were performed between July 2013 and July 2014 and the average time between TTS diagnosis and the MRI scans was about a year.

Professor Christian Templin, principle investigator at the Registry and professor of cardiology at University Hospital Zurich, said: “We were interested in four specific brain regions that are spatially separate from one another but functionally connected, meaning they share information. We found that TTS patients had decreased communication between brain regions associated with emotional processing and the autonomic nervous system, which controls the unconscious workings of the body, compared to the healthy people.

“For the first time, we have identified a correlation between alterations to the functional activity of specific brain regions and TTS, which strongly supports the idea that the brain is involved in the underlying mechanism of TTS. Emotional and physical stress are strongly associated with TTS, and it has been hypothesised that the overstimulation of the autonomic nervous system may lead to TTS events.”

The regions of the brain that the researchers looked at included the amygdala, hippocampus and cingulate gyrus, which control emotions, motivation, learning and memory. The amygdala and cingulate gyrus are also involved in the control of the autonomic nervous system and regulating heart function. In addition, the cingulate gyrus is involved in depression and other mood disorders that are common among TTS patients.

“Importantly, the regions we’ve identified as communicating less with one another in TTS patients are the same brain regions that are thought to control our response to stress. Therefore, this decrease in communication could negatively affect the way patients respond to stress and make them more susceptible to developing TTS,” said Professor Templin.

A limitation of the study is that the researchers did not have MRI scans of patients’ brains before or at the time they developed TTS, so cannot say for certain that the decreased communication between brain regions caused the TTS or vice versa.

Co-author, Dr Jelena Ghadri, a senior research associate at the University Hospital Zurich and co-principle investigator of the InterTAK Registry, said: “Our results suggest that additional studies should be conducted to determine whether this is a causal relationship. We hope this study offers new starting points for studying TTS in terms of understanding that it much more than ‘broken heart’ syndrome and clearly involves interactions between the brain and the heart, which are still not fully understood. We are at the beginning of learning more about this complex disorder. Hopefully, one day new findings can be translated into developments in preventive, therapeutic and diagnostic strategies to improve patient care.

“Of note, this study presents the results of a collaboration between neuroscientists and cardiologists. One problem in TTS research is that usually cardiologists only focus on the heart; we believe that approaching TTS in a multidisciplinary way might help to uncover the real nature and causes of this disease. The methods we used are mainly neuroscientific in nature, but the findings we uncovered are, in our view, of major importance for cardiologists in understanding TTS.”

Source: escardio.org

Full and finished short-story of the black cat. Please have a heart for black pets in general, animals do not deserve this kind of hostility. Please give credit when reposting, Thank you :)

im fucking bawling thanks for that

Nooo my heartttt

My fucking heart omfg

I only saw the first half and it still makes me cry but at least there’s some happy in it too now.

100 reasons to read

  1. Because you can.
  2. Free information with only a library card.
  3. When you have a question, there's always a book with an answer.
  4. Enchance your imagination.
  5. You are less depressed when you read.
  6. You're also less stressed when you read.
  7. You go on different adventures.
  8. You can ignore real people.
  9. You learn new things.
  10. There's always some fandom behind a book. You can make new friends.
  11. You can share your knowledge with others.
  12. Better analytical skills.
  13. Amazing personal library by the age 60.
  14. You will get a creativity boost.
  15. You will develop emotionally by going through way too many emotions when you read fiction.
  16. You learn from others' mistakes, fictional characters' mistakes.
  17. Enrich your vocabulary.
  18. You become intimidating.
  19. You read faster the more you read.
  20. There's always more to read, indefinite contend.
  21. No boredom with the right book.
  22. Your writing skills will become better.
  23. You'll get inspired by the characters.
  24. You can learn new skills to express your creativity around the books. (I.e. making your own bookmarks)
  25. You never run out of topics to learn.
  26. You become smarter.
  27. There's no way you will feel alone with a book. Go on an adventure.
  28. Finally, you'll see how much better the book is compared with the movie that skips many moments.
  29. You'll have new role models.
  30. You understand yourself better by analyzing the characters' behavior.
  31. Books aren't expensive if you know where to buy them.
  32. You can always bring a book with you and make it a statement. "Don't annoy me or I'll go to another universe at the speed of flipping a page"
  33. You will gain random knowledge about topics that you never thought to learn about.
  34. Definitely you will get interested in new stuff after getting some random pieces of information.
  35. Infinite sources for new fictional crushes.
  36. Having your little world for each book and being excited when you meet someone who knows that book.
  37. You can be passionate about a certain book and no bookworm will ever judge you.
  38. Looking for company? Look around the bookstore and see who has a book you have read or they are at the aisle of the genre you like, now you got a target.
  39. You get amazing life advice from fictional characters.
  40. You will laugh a lot.
  41. You will also feel alive. Like when your soul is on fire, nothing less.
  42. There's always more knowledge about 1 topic when it comes to books. If you like something, you can read about it for a long time.
  43. You can learn new languages by reading.
  44. You also get inspired by the characters to pick up certain skills or improve the ones you have.
  45. At some point you will hope to meet your lover in a bookstore.
  46. Bookworms also know what they want in a relationship because they have read so much at this point about romance that's impossible not to have a type.
  47. You will want to upgrade your life because you will want to have certain people around.
  48. You will sweep people off their feet with the amount of books you read.
  49. Reading is better than doing something dangerous.
  50. You will always have 2 places where you know you can be calm and meet new people, the library and the bookstore.
  51. You are more open minded.
  52. Eventually you'll think/realize that no soul in real life has all the boxes checked for your dating preferences.
  53. You might also develop an interest in tea and mugs. Talking about this, tea is amazing and it has many benefits based on its kind.
  54. Reading makes you wonder and ask questions. You become curious, you want to know more.
  55. Basically you have constantly a weapon at you. (Source: Snape hitting Ron with a book)
  56. Books are magic portals that allow you to have friends in your imagination and reality because there's at least 1 person who went through the same roller coaster. Chances are, they are on Tumblr reading or writing fan fiction.
  57. Talking about that. There's always more to the universe an author created and you can read fanfiction and headcanons.
  58. For the nonfiction readers, there are always articles.
  59. Your parents will be glad you are safe and proud probably because you read.
  60. If you read classics or know about them, even a bit, you become sophisticated. *Snaps fingers*
  61. You develop this ability to tell which book is well written and which book is not.
  62. You always gain something from a book. A laugh, an idea, a new crush etc.
  63. It's impossible not to be excited constantly when you got a new book.
  64. For some reason you also become positive, always looking for something good. Regardless of how terrible a book is rated, a bookworm will find at least 1 thing they like about it.
  65. Reading helps you forget about your problems.
  66. Every quote that impressed you becomes like a rule you live by.
  67. You feel relaxed when you read.
  68. You might end up with a candle collection too.
  69. After reading a good book you might start having a weakness for that universe and you will get stuff related to it like unique bookmarks from Etsy or order some jewelry from AliExpress.
  70. Everyone will know what to get you for every single event that requires a gift.
  71. You become the official ambassador of suggestions when someone wants to read something new.
  72. You'll find your twin in one of those books. A character that reminds you so much of you that they become part of your heart.
  73. Bookworms are better with romance in general.
  74. Your mind is stimulated by reading, you'll crave more.
  75. Soon it's time to see people in a new light. Of course you trust and like that person but would you trust them with your favorite book?
  76. Making new memories with characters is so much fun like there are moments you will never forget for a book. They change you.
  77. There's no limit to reading. If there's nothing to read that you want, you will start writing what you need/want to read.
  78. It's so easy to make people smile if you read a book and it happens that someone likes it. You get a free pass towards their heart.
  79. You become a new person by picking up new traits from your characters.
  80. Having problems with patience? Not anymore. Books teach you how to be patient and how to spot patient people.
  81. Of course there's also the people who read a book of 600 pages in 1 night but then you spot the passionate people so it's a win-win situation.
  82. You enjoy your own person and spending time with yourself. Yes, quality time!
  83. Gradually you develop an interest in hand made projects and art.
  84. It's amazing to be a bookworm.
  85. There are many funny memes about reading on Pinterest. They're not THAT relatable if you don't read.
  86. The headcanons of the books you like will make you giggle.
  87. Let's not say judgemental but you will be selective and pay more attention to details in your real life, as well as when you are reading.
  88. Chances are, you'll also start a blog or Instagram for books.
  89. You will having something new to say every single time someone talks to you.
  90. You become animated. Your feelings overwhelm you sometimes when you read.
  91. Every person has some unique perspectives over a book/book universe so it's nice to read about them.
  92. You become more accepting of others and their views.
  93. Your ability to ignore others will be at its peak because your concentration improves when you read.
  94. There are pocket sized books so you can ignore people on to-go too.
  95. Suddenly you get a routine where you spend time with yourself.
  96. Your memory improves too.
  97. People will leave you alone most of the time if you are reading.
  98. Everyone starts to respect you when they know you are reading. You get some kind of holy aura for them.
  99. Why not? Give it a chance.
  100. Because you will love it.

A toddler puts her hand on a hot stove and swiftly withdraws it. Alas, it’s too late—the child’s finger has sustained a minor burn. To soothe the pain, she puts the burned finger in her mouth.

Withdrawing one’s hand to avoid injury and soothing the pain of that injury are two distinct evolutionary responses, but their molecular origins and signaling pathways have eluded scientists thus far.

Now research led by investigators at Harvard Medical School, published Dec. 10 in Nature, identifies the nerve-signaling pathway behind the deep, sustained pain that sets in immediately following injury. The findings also shed light on the different pathways that drive reflexive withdrawal to avoid injury and the subsequent pain-coping responses.

Clinical observations of patients with neurological damage together with past research have outlined the distinct brain regions that differentiate between the reflexive withdrawal from a skin prick, for example, and the long-lasting pain arising from tissue injury caused by the pinprick.

The new study, however, is the first one to map out how these responses arise outside the brain.

The findings, based on experiments in mice, put into question the validity of current experimental approaches for assessing the efficacy of candidate pain-relief compounds. Most current methods rely on measuring the initial, reflexive response that serves to avert tissue injury, rather than on measuring the lasting pain that arises from actual tissue damage, the researchers said.

As a result, they said, some drug compounds that might have been successful in assuaging the sustained pain—the lasting sensation of pain that immediately follows injury—could have been dismissed as ineffective because they were assessed against the wrong outcome.

“The ongoing opioid crisis has created an acute and pressing need to develop new pain treatments, and our findings suggest that a more tailored approach to assessing pain response would be to focus on sustained pain response rather than reflexive protective withdrawal,” said study senior author Qiufu Ma, professor of neurobiology in the Blavatnik Institute at Harvard Medical School and a researcher at Dana-Farber Cancer Institute.

“All these years, researchers may have been measuring the wrong response,” Ma added. “Indeed, our results could explain, at least in part, the poor translation of candidate treatments from preclinical studies into effective pain therapies.”

Previous work by Ma and colleagues, as well as others, points to the existence of two sets of peripheral neurons—the nerve cells located outside the brain and spinal cord. One set of peripheral nerve cells send and receive signals exclusively to and from the superficial layers of the skin.

As a first-line of defense against external threats, these peripheral nerve cells are geared toward preventing injury by triggering reflexive withdrawal—think pulling your hand after a pinprick or to avoid the hot tip of a flame. Another set of neurons are dispersed throughout the body and thought to drive the lasting pain that sets in after initial injury and induces pain-coping behaviors such as pressing a banged finger or licking a cut in the skin to sooth the damaged area.

Yet the existence of these neurons could not fully explain how the pain signal travels throughout the body and to the brain. So, Ma and colleagues proposed the existence of another critical player in this relay.

The team focused on a set of neurons called Tac1 emanating from the so-called dorsal horn, a cluster of nerves located at the lower end of the spinal cord that transmit signals between the brain and the rest of the body. The precise function of Tac1 had remained poorly understood so Ma and colleagues wanted to know whether and how these neurons were involved in the sensation of sustained pain.

In a series of experiments, the team assessed pain response in two groups of mice—one with intact Tac1 neurons and another with chemically disabled Tac1 neurons.

Mice with inactivated Tac1 neurons had normal withdrawal reflexes when exposed to a painful stimulus. They showed no notable differences in their withdrawal from pricking or exposure to heat and cold. However, when the researchers injected the animals with burn-inducing mustard oil, they did not engage in the typical paw licking that animals perform immediately following injury. By contrast, mice with intact Tac1 neurons engaged in vigorous and prolonged paw licking to assuage the pain.

Similarly, mice with disabled Tac1 neurons showed no pain-coping responses when their hind paws were pinched—something that induces sustained pain in humans. These animals did not engage in any paw licking as a result of the pinch. Such loss of sensitivity to a specific type of pain mimics the loss of sensation seen in people with strokes or tumors in a particular area of the brain’s pain-processing center—the thalamus—that renders them incapable of sensing lasting pain.

These observations confirm that Tac1 neurons are critical for pain-coping behaviors stemming from sustained irritation or injury but that they play no role in reflexive-defensive reactions to external threats.

Next, researchers wanted to know whether Tac1 neurons shared a common connection with another class of neurons, called Trpv1, present throughout the body and already known to drive the sensation of lasting pain induced by injury. Mice that had functional Tac1 but nonfunctioning Trpv1 neurons responded weakly to pinch-induced pain, showing minimal paw licking. The finding suggests that pain-sensing Trvp1 neurons connect to Tac1 neurons in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord to transmit their signals.

“We believe that Tac1 neurons act as a relay station that dispatches pain signals from the tissue, through Trpv1 nerve fibers all the way to the brain,” Ma said.

Taken together, the results of the study affirm the presence of two lines of defense in response to injury, each controlled by separate nerve-signaling pathways. The rapid withdrawal reflex is nature’s first line of defense, an escape attempt designed to avoid injury. By contrast, the secondary, pain coping response helps reduce suffering and avert widespread tissue damage as a result of the injury.

“We believe it’s an evolutionary mechanism conserved across multiple species to maximize survival,” Ma said.

EVERYONE STOP WHAT YOU’RE DOING AND READ THIS

I don’t know if you know this now, but right now, there are two sisters from Saudi Arabia that are FLEEING the country and seeking asylum to escape their abusive family. If they return to Saudi Arabia, there’s a very good chance they’ll end up in a forced marriage, raped or even KILLED.

They made a video explaining what happened here

Here are some news articles I found about this

They managed to get to Twitter and alert everyone about their situation, but Twitter took their accounts down

Twitter is actually trying to SILENCE them and make sure that no one knows about this. Don’t let them get away with it. Reblog this and use the hashtag #SaveDuaandDalal

Thanks to @daughter-of-iblis for letting me know about this

REBLOG AND SPREAD THE WORD

Farewell online privacy

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What happened?

Trump happened.

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just get a VPN?

You can’t just tell people to ‘get a VPN (Virtual Private Network)’. Buying a VPN is like buying a house. It’s very very important. Having no VPN or having a ‘wrong’ one can seriously damage your life. Especially for Americans because their privacy laws are garbage. I am going to try explain why you should get a VPN but bare with me, I am from Germany and my English is far from perfect. 

Let’s start with a simple test. Click this link here: https://whatismyipaddress.com/ It will tell your IP adres, your ISP (internet service provider), and your location. The location might not be very accurate, but then again, it’s just a simple website. Imagine what the government can do!

So basically, everyone can find out where you live. But there is more danger. Your ISP. Your ISP logs your every move online and they are required to keep it in case the government wants access to it (or if a 3rd party wants to buy your data (yikes). They have everything. What websites you visit. How long you stay on a website. What you download. Your search terms. European laws are more subtle on this but if you are from the US you are #@*#&, especially because Trump doesn’t support the open internet. It’s scary but maybe in the future you can’t get a job because the recruiter knows your searched on ‘how to deal with depression’ or anythings else that’s supposed to be private because it’s your f*cking right. Or you get a $100k fine because you pirated a movie 15 years ago. You need a VPN. You’re dumb for not using one. but what does a VPN do?

A VPN encrypts all your data so if it were be intercepted no one can ‘crack the code’ and damage your privacy. 

Usually being online goes like this (simplified): Your computer —-> ISP (—–> keeps data —–> sells it)

But with a VPN it goes like: Your computer —–> VPN (encrypts data)—–> ISP (ISP can’t see shit)

Furthermore, a VPN hides your IP address and location by giving you another IP address located in Spain for example (you can often choose from a list and change as many times as you want).  

Now that you know why you should get a VPN and what is does it is important to educate yourself because people often choose the wrong VPN. VPN providers are also businesses and have to obey the law. If you choose a VPN provider located in the US then you are throwing your money away because the laws in the US shits on your privacy. If the US gov wants the provider to give all their logs they have to obey.  The ISP  still can’t see what you are doing online and sell your data but the US gov can interfere with your VPN provider so NEVER CHOOSE A PROVIDER LOCATED IN THE US. 

I just wanted to make that very clear so my followers don’t buy false security.

There is still more danger!  Who says your VPN provider isn’t selling your data? You need to check their logging policy. Do they keep logs? If yes, what for? For how long do they keep them? Tip: Choose a provider who doesn’t keep logs

More about law  The US is part of the Five Eyes program (the worst):  

The Five Eyes, often abbreviated as FVEY, is an intelligence alliance comprising Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States. These countries are bound by the multilateral UKUSA Agreement, a treaty for joint cooperation in signals intelligence (source)

There is also a Nine Eyes (bit better) and Fourteen Eyes Program (better).  You don’t want a VPN provider who is located in one the Five Eyes countries.  If you had to choose go for a provider located in a country that’s part of the Fourteen Eyes Program or even better, go for a country that isn’t part of any program! 

I know this is a shitty explanation and please pardon my english but now it’s time to do your own research. Take your privacy seriously. Maybe WWIII breaks out and you get killed for liking the ‘wrong’ FB-page.  

Make sure that your future VPN provider both has green boxes for Privacy Jurisdiction and Privacy Logging. 

I recommend ovpn.se and trust.zone. ovpn is located in Sweden so they are part of the 14 Eyes Program and they keep minimal logs. Their business ethics, however, are alright. 

Trustzone is located in the Seychelles. No country can interfere and their privacy jurisdiction is the best you can get. The US want your data but needs to get it from Trustzone? The Seychelles will simply give them the finger and wave them goodbye. However, this makes this provider very appealing for people who torrent and criminals because they keep no logs (and that is how it shoud be) Also,  there are almost no marketing efforts so this provider is one the cheapest)

Also, often providers such as ExpressVPN are being called ‘The Best’ on websites about VPNs but know that this is just marketing which also makes those provider more expensive (and they too shit on your privacy)

This must be the worst article you have ever read but please, please take your privacy very seriously.

EDIT: I got many people asking me which provider I use. For those who want to know, I use Trust Zone. They offer a free 3-day trial with no strings attached. But still do your own research! 

I am also with Trustzone but I think you forgot to explain one of it’s most important features. It protects you when you are using someone else’s Wi-Fi. If you are at Starbucks and you use their Wi-Fi your privacy is at risk. Anyone with ill intentions could steal your information. Especially if you are using an unsecured Wi-Fi hotspot. With a VPN your data gets encrypted so no one can steal it. 

Wait, what’s going, on? Did trump destroy internet privacy with a bill or something? Where’s the news? Oh wait, why am I getting visions of Alex Jones and selling water purifiers?

He hasn’t yet but he says he wants to. And if he is serious about it it would be really easy to do. Since all our data is already recorded, as the person above explained.

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Trump wants more surveillance of Muslim Americans. This in a country where internet privacy is already close to non-existent. 

btw this post only has 11k notes? That’s quite disappointing for something this important. 

Don’t reblog this post to save a life. Reblog this to protect an entire family!

@earth-ruins @writing-prompt-s Should I get trustzone for my mobile device?

If you use public Wi-Fi, then yes. Which VPN you use is up to you, amigo. Take @earth-ruins advice. Do your own research first. 

@elvesfromthedeep​ just brought the current situation in the US to my attention (March 30, 2017). 

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Sources

To all my friends in the US, please read this entire post. Making everyone aware of VPNs is going to be my mission. Your privacy matters. Please reblog this post.

Don’t tell me you just wanted to scroll past this. Stop looking at pictures of cats for a moment, okay? Don’t you realize how important this is? This is dangerous! ‘America, the best FREE country in the world’ my ass.

With this new law your ISP can sell your Internet history which could include passwords, usernames, religion, credit card numbers, race and much more to the highest bidder. So here is what I want you to do. You are going to read the whole thing and before you think ’this is so important. Let me reblog this real quick and go back to admiring cats again-NO! Don’t reblog this. Take action first. Then reblog. Sign up for a free trial! Trust.Zone offers one (here). Yes. It might be difficult to set up a VPN for some people. But is that going to stop you from protecting yourself and your family? 30 minutes. 30 minutes is all that it takes. 5 if you know how to install software. The problem with some of you is that you see ‘difficult’ as something negative. I want you to see difficult differently. I need you to push through this stuff. You are going to protect yourself. There is nothing negative about that. VPNs are fun and costsaving too! A VPN bypasses geographical restrictions so you can access websites you normally can’t or you could start Netflix’s one month free trial over and over again- forever. And it’s legal! (unless you use it to buy weapons etc.,) Don’t tell yourself that you are too tired and that you will do this tomorrow. Because that isn’t going to happen and you know it. You have to do this right now. You only have to click on it. Don’t let this/shit/life just happen to you. Take yourself seriously. Get a VPN.

Privacy is not a privilege, it’s a fundamental human right

Ok sorry that it’s so freaking long and also sorry for the language, but this is extremely important. Please reblog!

Reblogging again bc this is important